The Manhattan Project and the Atomic Bomb
Kathryn Hopper
Background
Fission and fusion are what makes the existence of weapons of mass destruction possible. Fission is the splitting of a nucleus[1]which makes an atom bomb while fusion is the bonding of two nuclei[2] which makes a hydrogen bomb. In 1898 Marie Curie discovered the radioactive elements of Polonium[3] and Radium.[4] Twenty-seven years later in 1925, the first cloud-chamber photographs of nuclear reactions were taken and in the mid-1930s[5], Leo Szilardproduced the first nuclear chain reaction and in realizing the possibilities of his discovery he patented it hoping to keep the procedure of a nuclear chain reactionsecret. Despite Szilard’s attempts, Otto Hahn and Fritz Straussman in December 1938 demonstrated nuclear fission.[6]
The theoretical advancements made in the 1930s caused scientists to speculate that because fission was possible, that under certain circumstances the development of a bomb might be possible.[7]In 1939, there were stories that the Germans were studying nuclear fission and on October 11, 1939 President Roosevelt received a letter from Albert Einstein confirming that the Germans were trying to purify uranium-235.[8]Inthe spring of 1940[9] President Roosevelt gave the order to secretly begin the research and development of an atomic bomb,[10] which in 1942 was code-named the Manhattan Project.[11] By not consulting Congress in the development of the atomic bomb President Roosevelt had the “sole and unconstrained authority over all possible uses of the Bomb.”[12]
Turning Point
“American policymakers chose to proceed simultaneously with five different methods of producing fissionable material. They experimented with electro-magnetic, gaseous diffusion, and centrifuge isotope separation processes to produce U-235, a special form of uranium, and uranium-graphite and uranium-heavy water pile processes to manufacture plutonium.”[13]When researching the development of the atomic bomb every stage and part of the project was kept top secret. No one knew initially what the goal of the research except for those in charge. According to Owen Chamberlain, a physicist at Los Alamos, people asked questions such as, "Is this person supposed to hear what I know about this topic? Am I talking about something classified? Is this something that's not classified? Has it been published somewhere? Have I got up-to-date information on what's not classified because it's been published?”[14]
The first successful test of the atomic bomb occurred on July 16, 1945, just outside Alamogordo, New Mexico, and was code-named Trinity.[15]Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima at 9:15.5 AM on August 6, 1945 and Fat Man at 11:50 AM on Nagasaki was bombed August 9, 1945.[16]
Effect
“The area of total vaporization from the atomic bomb blast measured one half mile in diameter; total destruction one mile in diameter; severe blast damage as much as two miles in diameter. Within a diameter of two and a half miles, everything flammable burned. The remaining area of the blast zone was riddled with serious blazes that stretched out to the final edge at a little over three miles in diameter.”[17]It was found that the detonation of an atomic bomb releases plutonium, mercury, and numerous other carcinogenic chemicals, leaves metallic taste to the air, and that the waste is toxic to the environment and all living organisms.[18]It was also experimentally determined that a small, high-altitude detonation can cause electromagnetic interference for 50 miles.[19]In December 1951 the first usable electricity from nuclear fission was produced at the National Reactor Station, later called the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. Less than a year later on November 1, 1952 the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb and in 1960 began atmospheric nuclear testing. “The U.S. government began stockpiling atom bombs, securing bases where they could be deployed, and creating a delivery system called the Strategic Air Command to fly them toward future targets.”[20]
After the detonation of the bombs in Japan and the decision by the United States government to continue the research and production of nuclear weapons disarmament was pushed by many different groups. Religious, women’s, and national groups formed around the world to push for the disarmament of nuclear weapons. There were multiple movements from the years 1949 – 1970 in countries such as Canada, Germany and New Zealand.[21] The Stockholm Peace Appeal was a Communist-led peace campaign to create a world-wide nuclear ban that was used as a petition against nuclear weaponry. This petition was mostly signed by those living in Communist-led countries and when it failed there was a subsequent petition dubbed the Warsaw appeal in 1951 that was signed by almost 600 million people, 90% of whom were from Communist-led countries.[22]
As of March 6, 2012 there are nine countries that have nuclear weapon capabilities. The United States, Russia, France, and the United Kingdom are the only countries to have operational and strategic weapons which are “designed to target cities, missile locations and military headquarters as part of a strategic plan.” The remaining 5 countries, which are China, Pakistan, India, Israel, and North Korea, have arsenals that include “non-strategic and non-deployed weapons as well as stockpiles.”[23]
[1] “nuclear fission”. Dictionary.com
[2] “nuclear fusion”. Dictionary.com
[3]Rhodes, Richard.The Making of the Atomic Bomb.1986:158.
[4]Dietz, David. Atomic Science, Bombs and Power.1958: 35
[5]Dietz, David. Atomic Science: 54
[6]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement.2009.
[7]Jones, Vincent C. “Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project”. Allan M. Winkler Reviews in American History.1987.
[8]Dietz, David. Atomic Science:151
[9]Dietz, David. Atomic Science:151
[10]Griffis, Chelsea. "Manhattan Project."Encyclopedia of American Environmental History. 2011.
[11]Jones, Vincent C. “Building the Bomb”.
[12]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[13]Jones, Vincent C.“Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project”.
[14] Owen Chamberlain: Physicist at Los Alamos, Berkeley Professor, 1950-1989, and Nobel Laureate. An Interview Conducted by Graham Hale in 1976; Physics Oral History Series.
[15]Griffis, Chelsea. “Manhattan Project”.
[16]Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. 1985: 538-540.
[17]Bellis, Mary, “History of the Atomic Bomb &The Manhattan Project Atomic Bomb Detonation at Hiroshima”. March 20, 2012. http://inventors.about.com/
[18]Griffis, Chelsea. "Manhattan Project."
[19]Bellis, Mary, “History of the Atomic Bomb”.
[20]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[21]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[22]Wittner, Lawrence S. Struggle Against the Bomb.
[23]“Which Countries Have Nuclear Weapons”.BBC.March 26, 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/
Bibliography
Chamberlain, Owen, interview by Graham Hale. Owen Chamberlain: Physicist at Los Alamos, Berkeley Professor, 1950-1989, and Nobel
Laureate. The Bancroft Library. The University of California, Berkeley. 1976.
Dietz, David. Atomic Science, Bombs and Power. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. 1958. 35-151.
Jones, Vincent C. "Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project." Allan M. Winkler Reviews in American History. The Johns
Hopkins University Press Stable. 1987.
Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. Washington D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. 1985. 538-540.
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuester, 1986.
Whcih Countries Have Nuclear Weapons. March 26, 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/.
Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2009.
Wittner, Lawrence S. The Struggle Against the Bomb. Stanford:Stanford University Press. 1993.
Kathryn Hopper
Background
Fission and fusion are what makes the existence of weapons of mass destruction possible. Fission is the splitting of a nucleus[1]which makes an atom bomb while fusion is the bonding of two nuclei[2] which makes a hydrogen bomb. In 1898 Marie Curie discovered the radioactive elements of Polonium[3] and Radium.[4] Twenty-seven years later in 1925, the first cloud-chamber photographs of nuclear reactions were taken and in the mid-1930s[5], Leo Szilardproduced the first nuclear chain reaction and in realizing the possibilities of his discovery he patented it hoping to keep the procedure of a nuclear chain reactionsecret. Despite Szilard’s attempts, Otto Hahn and Fritz Straussman in December 1938 demonstrated nuclear fission.[6]
The theoretical advancements made in the 1930s caused scientists to speculate that because fission was possible, that under certain circumstances the development of a bomb might be possible.[7]In 1939, there were stories that the Germans were studying nuclear fission and on October 11, 1939 President Roosevelt received a letter from Albert Einstein confirming that the Germans were trying to purify uranium-235.[8]Inthe spring of 1940[9] President Roosevelt gave the order to secretly begin the research and development of an atomic bomb,[10] which in 1942 was code-named the Manhattan Project.[11] By not consulting Congress in the development of the atomic bomb President Roosevelt had the “sole and unconstrained authority over all possible uses of the Bomb.”[12]
Turning Point
“American policymakers chose to proceed simultaneously with five different methods of producing fissionable material. They experimented with electro-magnetic, gaseous diffusion, and centrifuge isotope separation processes to produce U-235, a special form of uranium, and uranium-graphite and uranium-heavy water pile processes to manufacture plutonium.”[13]When researching the development of the atomic bomb every stage and part of the project was kept top secret. No one knew initially what the goal of the research except for those in charge. According to Owen Chamberlain, a physicist at Los Alamos, people asked questions such as, "Is this person supposed to hear what I know about this topic? Am I talking about something classified? Is this something that's not classified? Has it been published somewhere? Have I got up-to-date information on what's not classified because it's been published?”[14]
The first successful test of the atomic bomb occurred on July 16, 1945, just outside Alamogordo, New Mexico, and was code-named Trinity.[15]Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima at 9:15.5 AM on August 6, 1945 and Fat Man at 11:50 AM on Nagasaki was bombed August 9, 1945.[16]
Effect
“The area of total vaporization from the atomic bomb blast measured one half mile in diameter; total destruction one mile in diameter; severe blast damage as much as two miles in diameter. Within a diameter of two and a half miles, everything flammable burned. The remaining area of the blast zone was riddled with serious blazes that stretched out to the final edge at a little over three miles in diameter.”[17]It was found that the detonation of an atomic bomb releases plutonium, mercury, and numerous other carcinogenic chemicals, leaves metallic taste to the air, and that the waste is toxic to the environment and all living organisms.[18]It was also experimentally determined that a small, high-altitude detonation can cause electromagnetic interference for 50 miles.[19]In December 1951 the first usable electricity from nuclear fission was produced at the National Reactor Station, later called the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. Less than a year later on November 1, 1952 the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb and in 1960 began atmospheric nuclear testing. “The U.S. government began stockpiling atom bombs, securing bases where they could be deployed, and creating a delivery system called the Strategic Air Command to fly them toward future targets.”[20]
After the detonation of the bombs in Japan and the decision by the United States government to continue the research and production of nuclear weapons disarmament was pushed by many different groups. Religious, women’s, and national groups formed around the world to push for the disarmament of nuclear weapons. There were multiple movements from the years 1949 – 1970 in countries such as Canada, Germany and New Zealand.[21] The Stockholm Peace Appeal was a Communist-led peace campaign to create a world-wide nuclear ban that was used as a petition against nuclear weaponry. This petition was mostly signed by those living in Communist-led countries and when it failed there was a subsequent petition dubbed the Warsaw appeal in 1951 that was signed by almost 600 million people, 90% of whom were from Communist-led countries.[22]
As of March 6, 2012 there are nine countries that have nuclear weapon capabilities. The United States, Russia, France, and the United Kingdom are the only countries to have operational and strategic weapons which are “designed to target cities, missile locations and military headquarters as part of a strategic plan.” The remaining 5 countries, which are China, Pakistan, India, Israel, and North Korea, have arsenals that include “non-strategic and non-deployed weapons as well as stockpiles.”[23]
[1] “nuclear fission”. Dictionary.com
[2] “nuclear fusion”. Dictionary.com
[3]Rhodes, Richard.The Making of the Atomic Bomb.1986:158.
[4]Dietz, David. Atomic Science, Bombs and Power.1958: 35
[5]Dietz, David. Atomic Science: 54
[6]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb: A Short History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement.2009.
[7]Jones, Vincent C. “Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project”. Allan M. Winkler Reviews in American History.1987.
[8]Dietz, David. Atomic Science:151
[9]Dietz, David. Atomic Science:151
[10]Griffis, Chelsea. "Manhattan Project."Encyclopedia of American Environmental History. 2011.
[11]Jones, Vincent C. “Building the Bomb”.
[12]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[13]Jones, Vincent C.“Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project”.
[14] Owen Chamberlain: Physicist at Los Alamos, Berkeley Professor, 1950-1989, and Nobel Laureate. An Interview Conducted by Graham Hale in 1976; Physics Oral History Series.
[15]Griffis, Chelsea. “Manhattan Project”.
[16]Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. 1985: 538-540.
[17]Bellis, Mary, “History of the Atomic Bomb &The Manhattan Project Atomic Bomb Detonation at Hiroshima”. March 20, 2012. http://inventors.about.com/
[18]Griffis, Chelsea. "Manhattan Project."
[19]Bellis, Mary, “History of the Atomic Bomb”.
[20]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[21]Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb.
[22]Wittner, Lawrence S. Struggle Against the Bomb.
[23]“Which Countries Have Nuclear Weapons”.BBC.March 26, 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/
Bibliography
Chamberlain, Owen, interview by Graham Hale. Owen Chamberlain: Physicist at Los Alamos, Berkeley Professor, 1950-1989, and Nobel
Laureate. The Bancroft Library. The University of California, Berkeley. 1976.
Dietz, David. Atomic Science, Bombs and Power. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. 1958. 35-151.
Jones, Vincent C. "Building the Bomb: The Army and the Manhattan Project." Allan M. Winkler Reviews in American History. The Johns
Hopkins University Press Stable. 1987.
Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. Washington D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. 1985. 538-540.
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuester, 1986.
Whcih Countries Have Nuclear Weapons. March 26, 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/.
Wittner, Lawrence S. Confronting the Bomb. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2009.
Wittner, Lawrence S. The Struggle Against the Bomb. Stanford:Stanford University Press. 1993.