Scientific Revolution
Alissa Shinder
Background
Prior to the scientific revolution, Aristotle proposed that the Earth was at the center of the universe and that concentric spheres carried the planets around. In reaction to Aristotle’s discovery, Ptolemy described that the planets are brighter when they are closer to Earth.[1] Investigators became curious about the accuracy of Aristotle and Ptolemy’s findings.[2]
Turning Point
The scientific revolution marks a time in history where individuals began to investigate the natural world using logical reasoning. This new way of thinking about the natural world challenged traditional views and used experimentation to discover concepts about the universe. During the scientific revolution, scientists discovered that their findings did not match Aristotelian beliefs. The Catholic Church explained the world through inspiration. In contrast, science explained the world through logical reasoning.[3]The scientific revolution started in the 1500’s when Copernicus determined that the sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe. Copernicus eventually published his discovery in 1543 in the book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs.[4]
Following Copernicus’s discoveries, other individuals such as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton continued to investigate the natural world. Kepler discovered the cause for the number and distance of planets, so it was believed that he uncovered the mathematical blueprint by which God constructed the heavens.[5] The next major accomplishment of the scientific revolution occurred in 1609 when Galileo improved upon a Dutch device that he later called the telescope. In 1632, Galileo published the book Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems to compare the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems and emphasized that the Copernican system was correct in suggesting that the Earth is mobile and the sun is at the center of the universe.[6] In the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo stated, “First we must propound all those that have been put forward to prove the earth's stability by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others, trying next to resolve them. Finally we must produce those by which a person may become persuaded that the earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly.”[7] The Catholic Church believed that the Earth’s motion contrasted with biblical interpretation and forced Galileo to suppress his book. His investigation of the planets led him to determine that the planets, once set in circular motion, continue to move in circles forever, which proved that Copernican orbits existed.[8]
Newton then developed the three laws of motion, the principle of universal gravitation, and concepts that described forces between particles. Newton used these forces to predict other phenomena such as the speed of sound in air. In 1704, Newton published Optick, which explained his experimental physics theories that were later used to investigate heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical atoms[9]. Newton provedthat hypotheses could be used for experimental investigation until a coherent theory was developed.[10]
Along with astronomy developments during the scientific revolution, there were also philosophical changes. Bacon was a philosopher who proposed the idea that science would increase human knowledge, power, and control over nature. Bacon believed that experiments should be used to produce new scientific knowledge. Descartes was another philosopher who did not believe in knowledge based on reason, but rather emphasized the concept that he was thinking and therefore he must exist. His ideas are represented in his famous declaration: “I think, therefore I am.”[11] These two philosophical innovators also transformed the scientific method that was developed prior to the scientific revolution. The scientific method of the Middle Ages was based on Aristotle's inductive method of reasoning. Descartes introduced deductive reasoning, which allowed the scientist to formulate a hypothesis and then find evidence to support or disprove that hypothesis. The deductive and inductive methods were combined to provide a new model for experimentation during the scientific revolution.[12]
Effect
The scientific revolution impacted the way individuals viewed religion. Prior to the discovery that the Sun was the center of the universe and the earth was in motion, the Catholic Church agreed with Aristotle and Ptolemy that the Earth was the center of the universe and was stationary. Copernicus’s findings went against the Catholic Church biblical interpretation; therefore, this new natural philosophy caused religious devotion to decrease in the late sixteenth century.[13] The philosophical approach scientists were taking influenced many individuals to conclude that God either did not exist or did not play much of a role in daily life. This discovery contributed to the idea that the universe was not the product of God’s intervention, but rather worked like a machine according to natural laws.[14] Discoveries during the scientific revolution influenced individuals to abandon the idea that God created everything in the universe that was stated in the Bible. This concept changes the way many people in the world thought about what created aspects of the world. The scientific, cultural, social, and political developments in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries introduced the ideas of individualism, relativism, and rationalism. These philosophical transformations and the evolving concept of religion drastically altered the way humanity understood the world.[15]
The scientific revolution has changed the power that humanity has over the natural world. Scientific knowledge creates technological advancements that separate humanity from the natural world. Specifically, Newton published Optick, which explained his experimental physics theories that were later used to investigate heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical atoms. Inventions such as the vapor engine, automobiles, airplanes, and electrical devices have all descended from scientific discoveries during the scientific revolution. Humanity is dependent on theses technological advancements and only realizes their dependence on scientific knowledge when technology fails such as when lightning strikes and cuts out electrical power.[16] This revolution led to scientific knowledge that changed the daily world of human beings. Scientific knowledge could now be used to address humanity’s needs and problems. Technological advancements led to the invention of machines that decreased the hard labor needed from humans working in agricultural or industrial occupations.[17]
Scientific knowledge that originated during the scientific revolution has shaped humanity’s view of the world. The concepts developed led to a decrease in the role of religion in many individual’s lives. Along with the alteration in religious thought, this transformation also catalyzed technological development, which allowed humanity to gain power over nature. Philosophy and astronomy concepts developed during the scientific revolution continue to provide the foundation for humanity’s understanding of the world they live in.[18]
[1] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history. 2009. 183.
[2] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution: A very short introduction. 2011. 37.
[3] Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.” 2005. 1732-1735.
[4] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[5] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.” 2003. 779-782.
[6] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.
[7] Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Dialogue. 1632. 20.
[8] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.
[9] Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.”
[10] Barlioni, T."History of Science." 2013. 99-104.
[11] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future. 1975. 80.
[12] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[13] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future.
[14] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[15] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.”
[16] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future.
[17] Barlioni, T."History of Science."
[18] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.”
Bibliography
Barlioni, T. "History of Science." Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. New York. 2013: 99-104.
Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.Oxford University Press. New York. 2009:183.
Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Dialogue.Unknown publisher. Publication date unknown.1632: 20.
Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.” Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2003: 779-782.
Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.” Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit. 2005: 1732-1735. Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. New York. 2011: 37.
Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future. The University of Michigan. Michigan. 1975: 80.
Alissa Shinder
Background
Prior to the scientific revolution, Aristotle proposed that the Earth was at the center of the universe and that concentric spheres carried the planets around. In reaction to Aristotle’s discovery, Ptolemy described that the planets are brighter when they are closer to Earth.[1] Investigators became curious about the accuracy of Aristotle and Ptolemy’s findings.[2]
Turning Point
The scientific revolution marks a time in history where individuals began to investigate the natural world using logical reasoning. This new way of thinking about the natural world challenged traditional views and used experimentation to discover concepts about the universe. During the scientific revolution, scientists discovered that their findings did not match Aristotelian beliefs. The Catholic Church explained the world through inspiration. In contrast, science explained the world through logical reasoning.[3]The scientific revolution started in the 1500’s when Copernicus determined that the sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe. Copernicus eventually published his discovery in 1543 in the book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs.[4]
Following Copernicus’s discoveries, other individuals such as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton continued to investigate the natural world. Kepler discovered the cause for the number and distance of planets, so it was believed that he uncovered the mathematical blueprint by which God constructed the heavens.[5] The next major accomplishment of the scientific revolution occurred in 1609 when Galileo improved upon a Dutch device that he later called the telescope. In 1632, Galileo published the book Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems to compare the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems and emphasized that the Copernican system was correct in suggesting that the Earth is mobile and the sun is at the center of the universe.[6] In the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo stated, “First we must propound all those that have been put forward to prove the earth's stability by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others, trying next to resolve them. Finally we must produce those by which a person may become persuaded that the earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly.”[7] The Catholic Church believed that the Earth’s motion contrasted with biblical interpretation and forced Galileo to suppress his book. His investigation of the planets led him to determine that the planets, once set in circular motion, continue to move in circles forever, which proved that Copernican orbits existed.[8]
Newton then developed the three laws of motion, the principle of universal gravitation, and concepts that described forces between particles. Newton used these forces to predict other phenomena such as the speed of sound in air. In 1704, Newton published Optick, which explained his experimental physics theories that were later used to investigate heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical atoms[9]. Newton provedthat hypotheses could be used for experimental investigation until a coherent theory was developed.[10]
Along with astronomy developments during the scientific revolution, there were also philosophical changes. Bacon was a philosopher who proposed the idea that science would increase human knowledge, power, and control over nature. Bacon believed that experiments should be used to produce new scientific knowledge. Descartes was another philosopher who did not believe in knowledge based on reason, but rather emphasized the concept that he was thinking and therefore he must exist. His ideas are represented in his famous declaration: “I think, therefore I am.”[11] These two philosophical innovators also transformed the scientific method that was developed prior to the scientific revolution. The scientific method of the Middle Ages was based on Aristotle's inductive method of reasoning. Descartes introduced deductive reasoning, which allowed the scientist to formulate a hypothesis and then find evidence to support or disprove that hypothesis. The deductive and inductive methods were combined to provide a new model for experimentation during the scientific revolution.[12]
Effect
The scientific revolution impacted the way individuals viewed religion. Prior to the discovery that the Sun was the center of the universe and the earth was in motion, the Catholic Church agreed with Aristotle and Ptolemy that the Earth was the center of the universe and was stationary. Copernicus’s findings went against the Catholic Church biblical interpretation; therefore, this new natural philosophy caused religious devotion to decrease in the late sixteenth century.[13] The philosophical approach scientists were taking influenced many individuals to conclude that God either did not exist or did not play much of a role in daily life. This discovery contributed to the idea that the universe was not the product of God’s intervention, but rather worked like a machine according to natural laws.[14] Discoveries during the scientific revolution influenced individuals to abandon the idea that God created everything in the universe that was stated in the Bible. This concept changes the way many people in the world thought about what created aspects of the world. The scientific, cultural, social, and political developments in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries introduced the ideas of individualism, relativism, and rationalism. These philosophical transformations and the evolving concept of religion drastically altered the way humanity understood the world.[15]
The scientific revolution has changed the power that humanity has over the natural world. Scientific knowledge creates technological advancements that separate humanity from the natural world. Specifically, Newton published Optick, which explained his experimental physics theories that were later used to investigate heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical atoms. Inventions such as the vapor engine, automobiles, airplanes, and electrical devices have all descended from scientific discoveries during the scientific revolution. Humanity is dependent on theses technological advancements and only realizes their dependence on scientific knowledge when technology fails such as when lightning strikes and cuts out electrical power.[16] This revolution led to scientific knowledge that changed the daily world of human beings. Scientific knowledge could now be used to address humanity’s needs and problems. Technological advancements led to the invention of machines that decreased the hard labor needed from humans working in agricultural or industrial occupations.[17]
Scientific knowledge that originated during the scientific revolution has shaped humanity’s view of the world. The concepts developed led to a decrease in the role of religion in many individual’s lives. Along with the alteration in religious thought, this transformation also catalyzed technological development, which allowed humanity to gain power over nature. Philosophy and astronomy concepts developed during the scientific revolution continue to provide the foundation for humanity’s understanding of the world they live in.[18]
[1] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history. 2009. 183.
[2] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution: A very short introduction. 2011. 37.
[3] Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.” 2005. 1732-1735.
[4] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[5] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.” 2003. 779-782.
[6] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.
[7] Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Dialogue. 1632. 20.
[8] Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.
[9] Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.”
[10] Barlioni, T."History of Science." 2013. 99-104.
[11] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future. 1975. 80.
[12] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[13] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future.
[14] Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution.
[15] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.”
[16] Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future.
[17] Barlioni, T."History of Science."
[18] Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.”
Bibliography
Barlioni, T. "History of Science." Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. New York. 2013: 99-104.
Fara, P. Science: a four thousand year history.Oxford University Press. New York. 2009:183.
Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Dialogue.Unknown publisher. Publication date unknown.1632: 20.
Huysseteen, J. “Science, Origins.” Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2003: 779-782.
Mitcham, C. “Scientific Revolution.” Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit. 2005: 1732-1735. Principe, L. The Scientific Revolution: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. New York. 2011: 37.
Steneck, N. Science and Society: Past, present and future. The University of Michigan. Michigan. 1975: 80.