The Origins of Sophism and Sophistic Movements
Kelsey Hanrahan
Background
In modern-day English, sophism refers to the practice of arguing philosophically against misuses of logic. It has a distinct negative connotation. However, when sophism first arose in Greece around the 5th century B.C.E., the term referred to a “group of teachers and intellectuals”.[1]
Due to the lack of preserved written teachings pertaining to sophism, Plato’s texts on sophists, such as Protagoras of Abdera and Gorgias of Leontini,[2] have provided scholars physical evidence of the methodology of sophist philosophy. Therefore, these texts are some of the strongest glimpses into sophistic ideologies and beliefs.[3] Yet, there is growing debate that these texts are also misleading because they are written from the perspective of the “enemies,” or alternatives, of sophism. Their emphasis on rhetoric as an art form sharply opposed Socratic philosophy. [4]
Turning Point
Sophists were the first teachers to offer higher education in the field of liberal arts. Their students were taught to question traditions, classic literary texts, and others in general. It is thought that the goal of sophistic teachings was to enhance the persuasive, public speaking abilities of the movement’s followers. [5] Its pupils were taught to identify the weaknesses and strengths of many people and maintain a moving discussion about an important yet controversial topic pertaining to everyone.[6] Sophistic emphasis on the observable and empiricism is clearly displayed in Plato’s Protagoras, which details philosophical debates between Plato and Protagoras, a leader of the early sophist movement.[7]
As the presence and instruction of sophism spread in the second century C.E., the Second Sophistic Movement occurred. This particular movement transitioned the meaning of sophistic from intellectual to rhetorical.[8] Specifically, this movement pushed the idea that what were once regarded as purely innate qualities could now be seen as teachable qualities.[9]
Effect
Sophism radically changed the opinions and ideologies surrounding education. The function and subsequent importance of creating and refining skills through education was a byproduct of sophistic teachings. Intelligence was not seen as purely innate. Additionally, sophists drew attention to recognizing the significance of teachers, specifically through monetary acknowledgement.[10]
Although there is controversy over whether or not the Greek sophists of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.E. should be considered philosophers, numerous scholars agree that the sophistic movement created numerous influential philosophies that are pertinent to the study of physical existence through relativism[11] and logic. Through their teachings that focused on natural being and the human experience, sophists are thought to have founded the study of the social sciences.[12] Additionally, sophists are largely credited with creating the art of rhetoric and introducing the idea of communication styles.[13]
Also, scholars like E. Schiappa believe that the “theory of democracy” had been advanced through the study of leaders of the sophist movements, such as Protagoras. This is due to the fact that the origin of sophism took root in democratically inclined areas of Greece among intellectuals who focused on the importance of the individual’s and collective mass’ communication.[14] Furthermore, some scholars argue that through Plato’s Protagoras and Gorgias it is evident that because the methods and values of other Socratic philosophers were challenged by sophists[15] that those philosophers’ Socratic ideologies became stronger[16] and more well-rounded.[17] Following this line of thought, the understanding of Plato’s and Aristotle’s beliefs – for example – would not be as well-known or as highly regarded if sophists had not challenged such philosophers.[18] Nonetheless, the clever and detailed dichotomy that exists between sophists and Socratics in ancient Greek dialogues remains an important part of philosophical study today.[19]
[1] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[2] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 27.
[3] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 323.
[4] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 27.
[5] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129-130.
[6] Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. 318.
[7] Plato. Ed. Denver, Nicholas. Protagoras. 2008. 1-207.
[8] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[9] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 71-72.
[10] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 73.
[11] Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. 316.
[12] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[13] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 34.
[14] Robinson, Eric W. Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, The Sophists and Democracy Beyond Athens. 2007. 111-116. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2007.25.1.109.
[15] Plato. Ed. Hamilton, Walter and Emlyn-Jones, C. J. Gorgias. 2004. 1-155.
[16] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 72.
[17] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 323.
[18] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 324.
[19] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 74.
Bibliography
Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. Vol. 9.
Macmillan Reference USA. Detroit. 129-131.
Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. Vol. 13. Gale. Detroit. 323-324.
Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the
Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. Duke University Press. 315-336.
Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990.
Vol. 5. 27-41.
Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education.
2010. Vol. 32. St. Vincent’s University Hospital/University College Dublin, Ireland. 71-
75.
Plato. Ed. Denver, Nicholas. Protagoras. 2008. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 1-
207.
Plato. Ed. Hamilton, Walter and Emlyn-Jones, C. J. Gorgias. 2004. Penguin Books Limited.
London, UK. 1-155.
Robinson, Eric W. Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, The Sophists and Democracy
Beyond Athens. 2007. Vol. 25. University of California Press. 109-122. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2007.25.1.109.
Kelsey Hanrahan
Background
In modern-day English, sophism refers to the practice of arguing philosophically against misuses of logic. It has a distinct negative connotation. However, when sophism first arose in Greece around the 5th century B.C.E., the term referred to a “group of teachers and intellectuals”.[1]
Due to the lack of preserved written teachings pertaining to sophism, Plato’s texts on sophists, such as Protagoras of Abdera and Gorgias of Leontini,[2] have provided scholars physical evidence of the methodology of sophist philosophy. Therefore, these texts are some of the strongest glimpses into sophistic ideologies and beliefs.[3] Yet, there is growing debate that these texts are also misleading because they are written from the perspective of the “enemies,” or alternatives, of sophism. Their emphasis on rhetoric as an art form sharply opposed Socratic philosophy. [4]
Turning Point
Sophists were the first teachers to offer higher education in the field of liberal arts. Their students were taught to question traditions, classic literary texts, and others in general. It is thought that the goal of sophistic teachings was to enhance the persuasive, public speaking abilities of the movement’s followers. [5] Its pupils were taught to identify the weaknesses and strengths of many people and maintain a moving discussion about an important yet controversial topic pertaining to everyone.[6] Sophistic emphasis on the observable and empiricism is clearly displayed in Plato’s Protagoras, which details philosophical debates between Plato and Protagoras, a leader of the early sophist movement.[7]
As the presence and instruction of sophism spread in the second century C.E., the Second Sophistic Movement occurred. This particular movement transitioned the meaning of sophistic from intellectual to rhetorical.[8] Specifically, this movement pushed the idea that what were once regarded as purely innate qualities could now be seen as teachable qualities.[9]
Effect
Sophism radically changed the opinions and ideologies surrounding education. The function and subsequent importance of creating and refining skills through education was a byproduct of sophistic teachings. Intelligence was not seen as purely innate. Additionally, sophists drew attention to recognizing the significance of teachers, specifically through monetary acknowledgement.[10]
Although there is controversy over whether or not the Greek sophists of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.E. should be considered philosophers, numerous scholars agree that the sophistic movement created numerous influential philosophies that are pertinent to the study of physical existence through relativism[11] and logic. Through their teachings that focused on natural being and the human experience, sophists are thought to have founded the study of the social sciences.[12] Additionally, sophists are largely credited with creating the art of rhetoric and introducing the idea of communication styles.[13]
Also, scholars like E. Schiappa believe that the “theory of democracy” had been advanced through the study of leaders of the sophist movements, such as Protagoras. This is due to the fact that the origin of sophism took root in democratically inclined areas of Greece among intellectuals who focused on the importance of the individual’s and collective mass’ communication.[14] Furthermore, some scholars argue that through Plato’s Protagoras and Gorgias it is evident that because the methods and values of other Socratic philosophers were challenged by sophists[15] that those philosophers’ Socratic ideologies became stronger[16] and more well-rounded.[17] Following this line of thought, the understanding of Plato’s and Aristotle’s beliefs – for example – would not be as well-known or as highly regarded if sophists had not challenged such philosophers.[18] Nonetheless, the clever and detailed dichotomy that exists between sophists and Socratics in ancient Greek dialogues remains an important part of philosophical study today.[19]
[1] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[2] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 27.
[3] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 323.
[4] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 27.
[5] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129-130.
[6] Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. 318.
[7] Plato. Ed. Denver, Nicholas. Protagoras. 2008. 1-207.
[8] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[9] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 71-72.
[10] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 73.
[11] Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. 316.
[12] Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. 129.
[13] Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990. 34.
[14] Robinson, Eric W. Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, The Sophists and Democracy Beyond Athens. 2007. 111-116. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2007.25.1.109.
[15] Plato. Ed. Hamilton, Walter and Emlyn-Jones, C. J. Gorgias. 2004. 1-155.
[16] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 72.
[17] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 323.
[18] Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. 324.
[19] Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education. 2010. 74.
Bibliography
Barney, Rachel. Ed. Borchert, Donald M. Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sophists. 2006. Vol. 9.
Macmillan Reference USA. Detroit. 129-131.
Barth, L.A. New Catholic Encyclopedia: Sophists. 2003. Vol. 13. Gale. Detroit. 323-324.
Boyarin, Daniel. “A Dictatorship of Relativism?”: The Scandal of Sophism, On the
Epistemological Seriousness of Relativism. 2007. Duke University Press. 315-336.
Jarratt, Susan C. Hypatia: The First Sophists and Feminism, Discourses of the “Other”. 1990.
Vol. 5. 27-41.
Macsuibhne, S. P. Medical Teacher: Sophistry, the Sophists and modern medical education.
2010. Vol. 32. St. Vincent’s University Hospital/University College Dublin, Ireland. 71-
75.
Plato. Ed. Denver, Nicholas. Protagoras. 2008. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 1-
207.
Plato. Ed. Hamilton, Walter and Emlyn-Jones, C. J. Gorgias. 2004. Penguin Books Limited.
London, UK. 1-155.
Robinson, Eric W. Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, The Sophists and Democracy
Beyond Athens. 2007. Vol. 25. University of California Press. 109-122. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2007.25.1.109.