Black Death
Alissa Shinder
Background
The plague pandemic can be traced back to the first recorded occurrence in Athens, Greece, in 430 B.C. One century later, another plague pandemic occurred in Egypt, Persia, and Rome[1]. In both of these cases, it is unknown if these pandemics were caused by the Bubonic Plague.[2]The growth of international trade and military invasions later provided the opportunity for diseases to spread rapidly from one population to another. In the sixth century, the Bubonic Plague arrived in Arabia, North Africa, Asia, and Europe. The death toll from what became known as "Justinian's Plague" was even greater than that of the previous pandemics. As a result, the political and military power in the Byzantine Empire sharply declined.[3]The BubonicPlague did not entirely disappear, but it affected fewer people until the fourteenth century when the pandemic began in central Asia and spread rapidly through Europe again. The Bubonic Plague in society was not the result of an intentional spread of disease, but rather the result of inadequate knowledge about infectious disease prevention and treatment.[4]
Turning Point
A pandemic began in central Asia in 1346 and swept rapidly through Europe until the end of the 15th century.[5]Yersinia pestis was the bacteria that caused this pandemic, called the Bubonic Plague. The Bubonic Plague was caused by bites from fleas that were infected from black rats.[6] The classic symptom of this disease wasbuboes,which were hard, painful, swollen lymph nodes that filled with blood and pus, turned black, burst, and were accompanied by high fevers, headaches, chills, and severe body aches. The name of this pandemic, the “Bubonic Plague,” comes from the buboes symptom associated with this disease. The Bubonic Plague became known as the “Black Death” due to the dried blood that accumulated under the skin's surface and caused skin to turn black.[7]
Although a specific bacterium caused the pandemic during this time, external factors contributed to the rapid spread of the deadly disease. The growth of international trade and military invasions helped to spread the disease to populations in different areas of the world. The infected rats were transported on trade ships that traveled globally. Overpopulation at the time also led to crowded living conditions with black rat infestation and poor sanitation that increased the rate of disease transmission[8]. Given the widespread and extremely rapid invasion of the disease in various parts of the world, no accurate count exists of the amount of people who died from the plague during the time period of the Black Death. However, an estimated one third of the European population died during this specific pandemic.[9]
Fortunately, various factors emerged that led to the pandemic’s decline. The factors that helped eliminate the plague at the end of the 15th century included thatYersinia pestis resistant survivors remained alive, black rats that transmitted the bacterium were replaced by brown rats, and the use of brick and stone in buildings reduced indoor nesting sites for rats.[10]
Effect
The Black Death initially affected humanity because it caused a sudden increase in employment opportunities for the previous lower class trapped within the feudal system class structure. The rapid decline in the European population created job vacancies in deserted towns, vacant churches and governmental positions. Initially, the demand for physicians, gravediggers, and priests increased to manage the high rate of disease and death.[11] The death of many skilled workers posed various problems in society. These skilled workers could no longer complete their own work and also could not teach the next generation how to do their jobs. Cities bribed Black Death survivors with tax exemptions, free lodging, and education in order to get them to move to the area and provide skilled labor.[12]
Since this pandemic immediately caused a high demand for labor, the lower class benefitted economically from this period of increased opportunity. The price of labor increased because people who were previously peasants could demand more money for their labor due to the decrease in the total number of people available to work.[13] After the drastic decrease in population size, wealth was redistributed and this gave laborers the opportunity to benefit economically. Overall, the economic status of agricultural laborers improved after the Black Death. [14]In response to the decreased prices of goods and decreased landlord control over the land and animals they owned, Henry Knighton, an agricultural laborer who survived the Black Death stated, “A man can have a horse, which was before worth 40s. for 6s. 8d; a fat ox for 4s; a cow for 12d; a heifer for 2d; a big pig for 5d; a fat wether for 4d; a sheep for 3d; a sheep for 3d; a lamb for 2d; a stone of wool for 9d. Sheep and cattle go wandering over fields and through crops, and there is no one to go and drive to gather them.”[15] This firsthand account of the change in land and ownership proves that the economy drastically changed during the Bubonic Plague in the fourteenth century.
Although the increase in employment opportunities and labor wages improved the lower class’s standard of living, the feudal system’s upper class experienced the negative changes of the economy and job market immediately after the Black Death. The upper class had to pay more for labor, and the land that they owned decreased in value. In response to the worsening condition for the upper class, in 1349 King Edward III issued the Ordinance of Laborers,which ordered to maintain pre-plague prices and wages. [16] The Black Death weakened the landlords’ position in society and therefore led to negotiation, rather than coercion. The Black Death did not cause feudalism to decline, but rather accelerated the decline that started years prior to the beginning of this pandemic in 1347. The extreme decrease in population and high wage demand before and after the Black Death amplified the social structure changes that had already begun in Europe.[17]
The Black Death influenced humanity’s view of death and as a result fractured the psychological stability of society. During this time period, individuals were surrounded by death and grief on a daily basis as they watched this disease conquer their loved ones’ lives. This deadly pandemic instilled fear in individuals living during this time period. This motivated people to become socially isolated to protect themselves from contracting the disease[18].
At this time, people isolated themselves to avoid the Bubonic Plague.[19] Individuals neglected traditional relationships and obligations to friends, neighbors, children and family.[20] This isolation led to social chaos and high rates of anxiety, depression, and panic. The household quarantine did not actually prevent the spread of the disease, but rather caused the mortality to increase. Humanity during this time experienced more death due to the lack of knowledge that the bacteria causing the Bubonic Plague were transmitted by black rats instead of directly from person to person. In this case, humanity’s attempt to control the spread of disease actually caused flea-infested black rats to infect non-ill individuals in homes under quarantine. With fear of death, isolation, and inadequate medical knowledge to prevent or cure the plague, people looked for someone to blame for the disease.[21]
An emerging concept during this time period was that the plague was a punishment from God.[22] During the time period of the Black Death, Christians believed that Jews were “Christ Killers” who intentionally killed Christians by poisoning the water. In response, hundreds of thousands of Jews were massacred by Christians because they thought Jews caused the Black Death.[23]
The Black Death radically affected humanity. The sudden, drastic population decrease that occurred during this pandemic led to increased employment and economic opportunity for the lower class, while the upper class experienced the negative effects of this population change. This pandemic also affected the psychosocial wellbeing of individuals. Many people feared death and therefore abandoned their loved ones to prevent themselves from contracting the plague. When fear, anxiety, and depression took over the lives of individuals, people attempted to blame the Jews for this disease. In this case, lack of knowledge about disease transmission, prevention, and treatment contributed to the rapid spread of the Bubonic Plague.
[1] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World. 2007. 68-82
[2] Byrne, J. The Black Death. 2004. 57-86.
[3] Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black Death.” 2007. 616-627.
[4] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.” 2002. 62-66.
[5] Last, J. "Black Death." 2002. 122-123.
[6] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[7] Bowers, K. "The Black Death." 2001. 129-132.
[8] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[9] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[10] Last, J. "Black Death."
[11] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[12] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[13] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[14] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[15] Thompson, J. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” 1920. 565-572.
[16] Caferro, W. "Late Middle Ages." 2004. 433-437.
[17] Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black Death.”
[18] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[19] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World.
[20] Bowers, K. "The Black Death."
[21] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World.
[22] Hellsten, S. “The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change and Their Effects on National Security and Development by Andrew T. Price-Smith” 2004. 77-79.
[23] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
Bibliography
Bowers, K. "The Black Death." Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit. 2001: 129-132.
Byrne, J. The Black Death. Greenwood Press. Westport. 2004: 57-86.
Caferro, W. "Late Middle Ages." Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2004: 433-437.
Hellsten, S. “The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change and Their Effects on National Security and Development
by Andrew T. Price-Smith.” Politics and the Life Sciences. New York. 2004: 77-79.
Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.” Gale. New York. 2002: 62-66.
Last, John M. "Black Death." Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2002:122-123
Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black
Death, 1346-1353: The Complete History by Ole J. Benedictow” Population and
Development Review. New York. 2007: 616-627.
Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World. ASM Press. Washington. 2007:68-82.
Thompson, J. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” The American Journal of Sociology. Chicago. 1920: 565-572.
Alissa Shinder
Background
The plague pandemic can be traced back to the first recorded occurrence in Athens, Greece, in 430 B.C. One century later, another plague pandemic occurred in Egypt, Persia, and Rome[1]. In both of these cases, it is unknown if these pandemics were caused by the Bubonic Plague.[2]The growth of international trade and military invasions later provided the opportunity for diseases to spread rapidly from one population to another. In the sixth century, the Bubonic Plague arrived in Arabia, North Africa, Asia, and Europe. The death toll from what became known as "Justinian's Plague" was even greater than that of the previous pandemics. As a result, the political and military power in the Byzantine Empire sharply declined.[3]The BubonicPlague did not entirely disappear, but it affected fewer people until the fourteenth century when the pandemic began in central Asia and spread rapidly through Europe again. The Bubonic Plague in society was not the result of an intentional spread of disease, but rather the result of inadequate knowledge about infectious disease prevention and treatment.[4]
Turning Point
A pandemic began in central Asia in 1346 and swept rapidly through Europe until the end of the 15th century.[5]Yersinia pestis was the bacteria that caused this pandemic, called the Bubonic Plague. The Bubonic Plague was caused by bites from fleas that were infected from black rats.[6] The classic symptom of this disease wasbuboes,which were hard, painful, swollen lymph nodes that filled with blood and pus, turned black, burst, and were accompanied by high fevers, headaches, chills, and severe body aches. The name of this pandemic, the “Bubonic Plague,” comes from the buboes symptom associated with this disease. The Bubonic Plague became known as the “Black Death” due to the dried blood that accumulated under the skin's surface and caused skin to turn black.[7]
Although a specific bacterium caused the pandemic during this time, external factors contributed to the rapid spread of the deadly disease. The growth of international trade and military invasions helped to spread the disease to populations in different areas of the world. The infected rats were transported on trade ships that traveled globally. Overpopulation at the time also led to crowded living conditions with black rat infestation and poor sanitation that increased the rate of disease transmission[8]. Given the widespread and extremely rapid invasion of the disease in various parts of the world, no accurate count exists of the amount of people who died from the plague during the time period of the Black Death. However, an estimated one third of the European population died during this specific pandemic.[9]
Fortunately, various factors emerged that led to the pandemic’s decline. The factors that helped eliminate the plague at the end of the 15th century included thatYersinia pestis resistant survivors remained alive, black rats that transmitted the bacterium were replaced by brown rats, and the use of brick and stone in buildings reduced indoor nesting sites for rats.[10]
Effect
The Black Death initially affected humanity because it caused a sudden increase in employment opportunities for the previous lower class trapped within the feudal system class structure. The rapid decline in the European population created job vacancies in deserted towns, vacant churches and governmental positions. Initially, the demand for physicians, gravediggers, and priests increased to manage the high rate of disease and death.[11] The death of many skilled workers posed various problems in society. These skilled workers could no longer complete their own work and also could not teach the next generation how to do their jobs. Cities bribed Black Death survivors with tax exemptions, free lodging, and education in order to get them to move to the area and provide skilled labor.[12]
Since this pandemic immediately caused a high demand for labor, the lower class benefitted economically from this period of increased opportunity. The price of labor increased because people who were previously peasants could demand more money for their labor due to the decrease in the total number of people available to work.[13] After the drastic decrease in population size, wealth was redistributed and this gave laborers the opportunity to benefit economically. Overall, the economic status of agricultural laborers improved after the Black Death. [14]In response to the decreased prices of goods and decreased landlord control over the land and animals they owned, Henry Knighton, an agricultural laborer who survived the Black Death stated, “A man can have a horse, which was before worth 40s. for 6s. 8d; a fat ox for 4s; a cow for 12d; a heifer for 2d; a big pig for 5d; a fat wether for 4d; a sheep for 3d; a sheep for 3d; a lamb for 2d; a stone of wool for 9d. Sheep and cattle go wandering over fields and through crops, and there is no one to go and drive to gather them.”[15] This firsthand account of the change in land and ownership proves that the economy drastically changed during the Bubonic Plague in the fourteenth century.
Although the increase in employment opportunities and labor wages improved the lower class’s standard of living, the feudal system’s upper class experienced the negative changes of the economy and job market immediately after the Black Death. The upper class had to pay more for labor, and the land that they owned decreased in value. In response to the worsening condition for the upper class, in 1349 King Edward III issued the Ordinance of Laborers,which ordered to maintain pre-plague prices and wages. [16] The Black Death weakened the landlords’ position in society and therefore led to negotiation, rather than coercion. The Black Death did not cause feudalism to decline, but rather accelerated the decline that started years prior to the beginning of this pandemic in 1347. The extreme decrease in population and high wage demand before and after the Black Death amplified the social structure changes that had already begun in Europe.[17]
The Black Death influenced humanity’s view of death and as a result fractured the psychological stability of society. During this time period, individuals were surrounded by death and grief on a daily basis as they watched this disease conquer their loved ones’ lives. This deadly pandemic instilled fear in individuals living during this time period. This motivated people to become socially isolated to protect themselves from contracting the disease[18].
At this time, people isolated themselves to avoid the Bubonic Plague.[19] Individuals neglected traditional relationships and obligations to friends, neighbors, children and family.[20] This isolation led to social chaos and high rates of anxiety, depression, and panic. The household quarantine did not actually prevent the spread of the disease, but rather caused the mortality to increase. Humanity during this time experienced more death due to the lack of knowledge that the bacteria causing the Bubonic Plague were transmitted by black rats instead of directly from person to person. In this case, humanity’s attempt to control the spread of disease actually caused flea-infested black rats to infect non-ill individuals in homes under quarantine. With fear of death, isolation, and inadequate medical knowledge to prevent or cure the plague, people looked for someone to blame for the disease.[21]
An emerging concept during this time period was that the plague was a punishment from God.[22] During the time period of the Black Death, Christians believed that Jews were “Christ Killers” who intentionally killed Christians by poisoning the water. In response, hundreds of thousands of Jews were massacred by Christians because they thought Jews caused the Black Death.[23]
The Black Death radically affected humanity. The sudden, drastic population decrease that occurred during this pandemic led to increased employment and economic opportunity for the lower class, while the upper class experienced the negative effects of this population change. This pandemic also affected the psychosocial wellbeing of individuals. Many people feared death and therefore abandoned their loved ones to prevent themselves from contracting the plague. When fear, anxiety, and depression took over the lives of individuals, people attempted to blame the Jews for this disease. In this case, lack of knowledge about disease transmission, prevention, and treatment contributed to the rapid spread of the Bubonic Plague.
[1] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World. 2007. 68-82
[2] Byrne, J. The Black Death. 2004. 57-86.
[3] Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black Death.” 2007. 616-627.
[4] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.” 2002. 62-66.
[5] Last, J. "Black Death." 2002. 122-123.
[6] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[7] Bowers, K. "The Black Death." 2001. 129-132.
[8] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[9] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[10] Last, J. "Black Death."
[11] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[12] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[13] Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.”
[14] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[15] Thompson, J. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” 1920. 565-572.
[16] Caferro, W. "Late Middle Ages." 2004. 433-437.
[17] Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black Death.”
[18] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
[19] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World.
[20] Bowers, K. "The Black Death."
[21] Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World.
[22] Hellsten, S. “The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change and Their Effects on National Security and Development by Andrew T. Price-Smith” 2004. 77-79.
[23] Byrne, J. The Black Death.
Bibliography
Bowers, K. "The Black Death." Gale Virtual Reference Library. Detroit. 2001: 129-132.
Byrne, J. The Black Death. Greenwood Press. Westport. 2004: 57-86.
Caferro, W. "Late Middle Ages." Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2004: 433-437.
Hellsten, S. “The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change and Their Effects on National Security and Development
by Andrew T. Price-Smith.” Politics and the Life Sciences. New York. 2004: 77-79.
Kastenbaum, R. “Black Death.” Gale. New York. 2002: 62-66.
Last, John M. "Black Death." Gale Virtual Reference Library. New York. 2002:122-123
Noymer, A. “Contesting the Cause and Severity of the Black Death: A Review Essay The Black
Death, 1346-1353: The Complete History by Ole J. Benedictow” Population and
Development Review. New York. 2007: 616-627.
Sherman, I. Twelve Diseases That Changed Our World. ASM Press. Washington. 2007:68-82.
Thompson, J. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” The American Journal of Sociology. Chicago. 1920: 565-572.